Using Philosophy in Schools to Boost Critical Thinking

This essay examines a significant empirical study published by Zulkifli & Hashim in 2020 in the International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, which investigated the impact of Philosophy for Children (P4C) on the development of critical thinking in Malaysian secondary Moral Education classrooms. The study is situated within a broader context of increasing international interest in how philosophical inquiry can be leveraged to enhance higher-order thinking skills, moral reasoning, and holistic educational outcomes for young people.

Introduction to the Study and Its Rationale

The research responds to an identified lacuna in the literature: while various educational initiatives globally have incorporated “thinking skills” curricula—ranging from Edward de Bono’s “Lateral Thinking” to Reuven Feuerstein’s “Instrumental Enrichment” and the “Cognitive Acceleration” programmes of Adey and Shayer—there has been comparatively little focus on P4C as a distinctive pedagogical strategy within the specific domain of moral education, particularly in Southeast Asia. The rationale for the study is rooted in the conviction, articulated by Lipman and colleagues, that education should be oriented not toward rote memorisation but towards the cultivation of independent reasoning, judgement, and reflective practice. Lipman’s original vision for P4C, inspired by Dewey, Vygotsky, and a diverse set of philosophers and psychologists, was to foster classrooms in which inquiry, dialogue, and collaborative sense-making would take precedence over didactic instruction.

Methodological Design and Implementation

To assess the effects of P4C, the researchers employed a quasi-experimental design involving two classes of form two (approximately 14-year-old) Moral Education students in a multi-ethnic Malaysian public school. One group engaged in a series of P4C sessions, while the control group continued with the standard, teacher-centred moral education curriculum. Both groups were assessed on their critical thinking skills before and after the intervention, allowing for a comparative analysis of gains attributable to the P4C approach. The P4C sessions themselves drew on philosophical novels and stories (e.g., Harry Stottlemeier’s Discovery, Suki, Pixie) as well as visual and dialogical stimuli, structured to provoke discussion around issues that were both personally relevant and philosophically contestable.

It is important to note that the research design, while rigorous, was necessarily constrained by the realities of educational research: random assignment was not feasible, and various “threats to validity” (such as differences in scheduling, student participation in outside enrichment activities, and the challenge of attrition) were managed through careful administrative controls and clear methodological transparency.

Key Findings and Educational Significance

The study’s findings are both robust and illuminating. Students in the P4C group demonstrated substantially greater improvements in critical thinking scores compared to their peers in the conventional moral education group. This effect appears to be attributable not merely to exposure to philosophical content, but to the distinctive pedagogical features of P4C: the emphasis on open-ended questioning, shared inquiry, collective meaning-making, and the modelling of philosophical thinking as a dialogical rather than didactic practice.

Several mechanisms underlying this positive impact deserve emphasis. First, the use of stories as stimuli for discussion made philosophical concepts accessible and meaningful for students, enabling them to see connections between philosophical issues and their own lived experience. Second, the structure of the community of inquiry—central to the P4C methodology—empowered students to articulate, question, and refine their own beliefs in a supportive environment, fostering both intellectual autonomy and social empathy. Third, the collaborative nature of P4C dialogue helped to break down hierarchical relationships in the classroom, encouraging students to take one another’s perspectives seriously and to co-construct knowledge.

For educators, these findings carry profound implications. The success of P4C in this context suggests that philosophical inquiry should not be regarded as a rarefied or marginal addition to the curriculum, but as a core practice capable of enriching the intellectual, moral, and emotional development of students. P4C provides a powerful model for “teaching for thinking”—not only enhancing critical and creative thinking, but also nurturing dispositions such as open-mindedness, reflective judgement, and respect for plural perspectives. The benefits extend beyond cognitive skills: the research echoes previous studies (e.g., Fisher, Haynes, Sasseville) in showing that P4C can foster self-esteem, social cohesion, and an increased sense of personal agency in students.

Critical Reflections and Limitations

While the study makes a strong case for the integration of philosophical inquiry into moral education, it is also candid about its limitations. The research was conducted in a specific institutional and cultural context, with a sample drawn from two classes in one secondary school, and over a relatively short period of intervention. Issues of generalisability therefore arise, and the authors rightly caution against sweeping extrapolations. Additionally, practical constraints—such as limited classroom time and the competing demands of the formal curriculum—sometimes required modifications to the ideal P4C model, such as using visual stimuli instead of extended texts or abbreviating some activities.

Despite these limitations, the study’s methodological care (including attention to internal validity, the use of pre- and post-tests, and transparent reporting of potential confounds) means that its findings offer valuable evidence for the educational value of P4C. Moreover, the authors suggest concrete directions for further research: the use of action research methodologies to support teacher-led inquiry into P4C practice, and qualitative case studies to document the lived experiences of teachers and students implementing philosophical dialogue.

Implications for Educators and Policy-Makers

For educators, the implications of this study are substantial. The evidence suggests that P4C can be an effective and scalable approach to promoting higher-order thinking, particularly within domains like moral and citizenship education where dialogical engagement and ethical reasoning are essential. Teachers interested in adopting P4C should be encouraged to experiment with philosophical stories, visual prompts, and structured dialogue to foster a classroom culture of inquiry and critical reflection. At the policy level, curriculum planners should consider how to create space for philosophical enquiry within the crowded timetable, recognising its potential to cultivate both cognitive and socio-emotional capacities in students.

Furthermore, the findings prompt a re-examination of educational priorities. In an era increasingly dominated by standardised testing and instrumental measures of attainment, this research is a reminder that education’s deeper purposes—cultivating autonomous, thoughtful, and morally responsible individuals—may be best realised through pedagogies that challenge students to question, reflect, and engage meaningfully with complexity.

Discussion

Educators today are increasingly recognising the importance of cultivating critical thinking skills in their students—abilities that are essential for navigating the complexities of modern society. Among the various pedagogical strategies available, Philosophy for Children (P4C) stands out as a powerful and adaptable approach for nurturing these skills in the classroom. Developed by Matthew Lipman and colleagues in the late twentieth century, P4C is designed not to create “little philosophers,” but rather to help children and adolescents think more clearly, reason more rigorously, and reflect more deeply on the world around them. This essay explores how educators can effectively implement P4C to foster critical thinking, drawing on both theory and research to illuminate best practices and potential challenges.

At the heart of P4C is the “community of inquiry,” a dialogic method in which students collaboratively explore philosophical questions prompted by stories, dilemmas, images, or real-life situations. Unlike traditional teaching methods, which often emphasise the transmission of facts, P4C prioritises open-ended questioning, dialogue, and collective reasoning. In this environment, students are encouraged to ask their own questions, justify their opinions, and challenge the reasoning of their peers. This practice helps to develop a range of cognitive skills: the ability to analyse arguments, identify assumptions, evaluate evidence, and consider alternative viewpoints. By shifting the teacher’s role from lecturer to facilitator, P4C creates a classroom atmosphere where critical thinking becomes a shared, lived experience rather than a discrete academic skill.

One practical way educators can use P4C is by integrating philosophical stories or novels into the curriculum. Lipman himself wrote a series of philosophical novels for children, such as Harry Stottlemeier’s Discovery, which present relatable characters facing complex moral and intellectual dilemmas. When students read these texts, they are invited to identify the central questions, discuss possible answers, and reflect on their own beliefs and assumptions. Teachers can use structured discussion techniques—such as concept mapping, question voting, and Socratic questioning—to guide these explorations while still allowing students significant autonomy in directing the conversation. Research has shown that such story-based philosophical inquiry not only engages students’ imaginations but also deepens their capacity for logical reasoning and perspective-taking.

Another effective strategy is to use real-world scenarios or news stories as the stimulus for philosophical inquiry. For example, a discussion about fairness in the distribution of resources, triggered by a contemporary news item, can prompt students to consider issues of justice, rights, and social responsibility. In such discussions, the teacher’s role is to encourage students to articulate reasons for their views, respectfully challenge one another, and revise their thinking in light of new arguments. This process mirrors the structure of critical thinking in broader society and helps students internalise habits of reflection, self-correction, and reasoned debate.

Implementing P4C also requires careful attention to classroom dynamics. Creating a supportive and respectful environment is crucial; students must feel safe to express their views and take intellectual risks. Teachers can foster this by establishing ground rules for dialogue, modelling respectful listening, and affirming the value of tentative or unconventional contributions. In culturally diverse classrooms, P4C offers particular promise, as it allows multiple perspectives to be voiced and examined, challenging students to recognise bias and to think beyond their own assumptions.

Empirical research supports the effectiveness of P4C for improving critical thinking. For example, the study by Hafizhah Zulkifli and Rosnani Hashim (2020) in Malaysian secondary schools found that students who participated in P4C sessions demonstrated significantly greater gains in reasoning and critical thinking than those in conventional classes. Similar findings have been reported in other contexts, with P4C shown to promote not only cognitive growth but also social and emotional learning.

However, educators should be aware of certain challenges in implementing P4C. Facilitating philosophical dialogue requires skill and confidence, particularly when discussions touch on sensitive or controversial issues. Teachers may need targeted professional development and ongoing support to develop these abilities. Time constraints and curricular pressures can also make it difficult to devote sufficient attention to philosophical inquiry. Nonetheless, many educators find that the investment pays off—not only in students’ improved critical thinking but in heightened classroom engagement and a more reflective school culture.

Conclusion

In summary, this study adds to the growing body of international research demonstrating the value of Philosophy for Children as a means to enhance critical thinking and holistic development in young people. The P4C approach, with its roots in Deweyan pragmatism and a rich tradition of philosophical inquiry, offers a compelling alternative to rote learning and passive absorption of information. By bringing philosophy into the classroom, educators can help students not only to think better, but also to live more reflective, responsible, and flourishing lives. The challenge now is to continue exploring, refining, and expanding these practices so that the benefits of philosophical inquiry can reach ever wider and more diverse groups of learners. Philosophy for Children offers a rich and flexible framework for educators seeking to enhance critical thinking skills in their students. By fostering a classroom culture of inquiry, open dialogue, and mutual respect, teachers can help young people become more thoughtful, reflective, and independent thinkers. The success of P4C across diverse educational contexts suggests that philosophy is not an esoteric luxury, but a practical necessity for preparing students to face the challenges of the twenty-first century with intelligence and integrity.

References

Zulkifli, H., & Hashim, R. (2020). Philosophy for Children (P4C) in improving critical thinking in a secondary moral education class. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 19(2), 29–45. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.2.3